Passion, Potential, Pain, & Perspectives:
Explorations of Indigenous Development and Education
(Winter 2016-17)
This series represents a journey ongoing, weaving professional experiences with academic learnings. Fifteen years ago I was teaching media arts production to high school students at a Native American-focused school. Around this same period, I took a Native American history class in college in which I first learned about the boarding schools that the U.S. government ran to educate and assimilate Native American children into American society. In the intervening years, many additional experiences and studies have added onto my journey of understanding of history and lived experiences that were not touched on in the elementary or high school curriculum that I was taught growing up.
As an educator, I have seen great strengths and spirits in many of the wonderful students that I have had the honor of working with. At the same time, as the years have gone on I have seen an increasing number of former students struggle with addictions, mental illness, incarceration, and ultimately seen far too many young lives end prematurely in death. While I can maintain hope for positive change for those currently facing addictions, mental illness, or incarceration because these young people are still alive–with the finality of death this window of hope is slammed shut. The young person with so many life stories, strengths, and potentials can no longer make different decisions or gain access to resources that could support their healing and growth. Death removes the opportunity for choice-making in this world.
The finality of death has left me in search of answers. Why is this the ultimate outcome for far too many young people who have such wonderful spirits and gifts? What are the things that precede such deaths? How could those preceding experiences be changed for upcoming generations so that they may have better chances of living longer and healthier lives? Searching for answers has lead me down non-traditional paths, exploring broadly what research has to offer up about human development, families, teaching, and larger systems forces while still maintaining applied roots in community and direct work with young people.
This series offers you glimpses of this personal, professional, and academic journey–of impactful experiences and relevant literature from a variety of perspectives. In continuing on through this series you will see snapshots of different paths of searching that I have taken and some tentative conclusions I have come to that you may or may not agree with. The series also reflects my persistent habit of questioning, posing queries for you, the viewer, to consider–whether or not ready answers may be apparent. While there may be some similarities or overlaps between your and my responses to the questions posed, it may be equally likely that you arrive at different tentative responses owing to your own background and lenses through which you see the world. This is to be expected and valued.
As an educator, I have seen great strengths and spirits in many of the wonderful students that I have had the honor of working with. At the same time, as the years have gone on I have seen an increasing number of former students struggle with addictions, mental illness, incarceration, and ultimately seen far too many young lives end prematurely in death. While I can maintain hope for positive change for those currently facing addictions, mental illness, or incarceration because these young people are still alive–with the finality of death this window of hope is slammed shut. The young person with so many life stories, strengths, and potentials can no longer make different decisions or gain access to resources that could support their healing and growth. Death removes the opportunity for choice-making in this world.
The finality of death has left me in search of answers. Why is this the ultimate outcome for far too many young people who have such wonderful spirits and gifts? What are the things that precede such deaths? How could those preceding experiences be changed for upcoming generations so that they may have better chances of living longer and healthier lives? Searching for answers has lead me down non-traditional paths, exploring broadly what research has to offer up about human development, families, teaching, and larger systems forces while still maintaining applied roots in community and direct work with young people.
This series offers you glimpses of this personal, professional, and academic journey–of impactful experiences and relevant literature from a variety of perspectives. In continuing on through this series you will see snapshots of different paths of searching that I have taken and some tentative conclusions I have come to that you may or may not agree with. The series also reflects my persistent habit of questioning, posing queries for you, the viewer, to consider–whether or not ready answers may be apparent. While there may be some similarities or overlaps between your and my responses to the questions posed, it may be equally likely that you arrive at different tentative responses owing to your own background and lenses through which you see the world. This is to be expected and valued.
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Varied Perspectives
Singular or easy answers may not exist for much of what I ponder. Because of the messiness of life, it is important to view things from a variety of perspectives in considering possibilities. A Coyote tale may help illustrate how new perspectives can be found through kindness and openness to others. In this story, Rabbit teaches Coyote a special song that makes his eyes fly out and then back to him, but Rabbit warns that the song should not be used more than three times–a warning that Coyote does not heed and ultimately costs him his own eyes1. As he stumbles blindly down the trail, Coyote encounters first a Mouse and later a Buffalo, each of whom offer Coyote one of their eyes. These gifts allow Coyote to see, albeit viewing the world differently through his new eyes. So, too, Mikmaw elders Albert and Murdena Marshall share about the concept of Two-Eyed Seeing, which “refers to the ability to see from one eye with the strengths of one way of knowing and to see from the other eye with the strengths of another way of knowing”2. This concept of multiple ways of seeing is also important when considering that Indigenous peoples are not homogenous, representing individuals from over 500 federally recognized tribes in the U. S., bringing diversity of histories, experiences, and traditions3.
In reflecting on my own journey, I would like to think that I bring multiple ways of knowing to things–both that of the world of practice in which first-hand interactions are central and that of literature, which captures ideas and findings in a relatively static manner representing specific understandings at particular points in time. At the same time, there are many different perspectives that I have just been introduced to and possibly others that I have not been exposed to yet. In thinking of your own journey, what perspectives could you benefit from learning more about? How could introducing new views and ways to go about things change the way that you look at a current challenge?
Sources:
1, 2 Greenwood, M., & Jones, E. (2015). Being at the interface: Early childhood as a determinant of health. In M. Greenwood, S. de Leeuw, N. M. Lindsay, & C. Reading (Eds.).
3 Peacock, T. D., & Day, D. R. (2000). Nations within a nation: the Dakota and Ojibwe of Minnesota. Daedalus, 129(3), 137-159.
In reflecting on my own journey, I would like to think that I bring multiple ways of knowing to things–both that of the world of practice in which first-hand interactions are central and that of literature, which captures ideas and findings in a relatively static manner representing specific understandings at particular points in time. At the same time, there are many different perspectives that I have just been introduced to and possibly others that I have not been exposed to yet. In thinking of your own journey, what perspectives could you benefit from learning more about? How could introducing new views and ways to go about things change the way that you look at a current challenge?
Sources:
1, 2 Greenwood, M., & Jones, E. (2015). Being at the interface: Early childhood as a determinant of health. In M. Greenwood, S. de Leeuw, N. M. Lindsay, & C. Reading (Eds.).
3 Peacock, T. D., & Day, D. R. (2000). Nations within a nation: the Dakota and Ojibwe of Minnesota. Daedalus, 129(3), 137-159.
Perceptual Influences
Early experiences often represent the standards people come to expect, whether consciously or not. Attending public school, I went to a program with an “open” philosophy that valued student leadership and choice-making. Following graduation, I went on to work in Native American educational programs where children were also valued as actors in their own right, only much later learning that “open” philosophy is one of the models that has been seen as a good cultural fit for Native students1, 2. I also self-selected into a graduate degree program focused on differentiated instruction, again immersing in learning experiences that emphasized students as playing a very active part in the learning process. Of course, there are many other educational philosophies and settings that I have encountered and which may be seen as more ‘normal’ to those who grew up with them.
This tendency to be drawn to what one has experienced growing up has played a role in educator training. By 1900, the U.S. Government had opened two teacher training programs in Native American boarding school to prepare their students to teach in the same types of schools which were at the time often controversial among those back home in Indigenous communities3. The patterns set years before have continued at times to influence current teaching practice, as Goeson (2014) related “Although it was not its intent, when Head Start began on my reservation it initially echoed the boarding school approach. Even though the teachers were members of the tribe, I experienced a disconnect from my culture”4. At times, cultural values deeper than school have been seen to influence teacher actions, such as the types of classroom behaviors that were seen as problematic and the approaches used to address concerning behaviors5.
In considering the experiences and lenses you bring to the world, what values and philosophies are most prominent? Which ones do you sense may be there, but you don’t spend much time thinking about? How may your background influence your approach to the world today?
Sources:
1 Foerster, L. M., & Little Soldier, D. (1974). Open education and Native American values. Educational Leadership, 32(1), 41-45.
2 Foerster, L. M., & Little Soldier, D. (1977). Trends in early childhood education for Native American pupils. Educational Leadership, 34(5), 373-378.
3 Cahill, C. D. (2011). Federal fathers & mothers: A social history of the United States Indian Service, 1869-1933. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
4 Goeson, R. (2014). Finding our voices through narrative inquiry: Exploring a conflict of cultures. Voices of Practitioners, 9(1), 1-22.
5 Light, H. K., & Martin, R. E. (1985). Guidance of American Indian children: Their heritage and some contemporary views. Journal of American Indian Education, 25(1), 42-46.
This tendency to be drawn to what one has experienced growing up has played a role in educator training. By 1900, the U.S. Government had opened two teacher training programs in Native American boarding school to prepare their students to teach in the same types of schools which were at the time often controversial among those back home in Indigenous communities3. The patterns set years before have continued at times to influence current teaching practice, as Goeson (2014) related “Although it was not its intent, when Head Start began on my reservation it initially echoed the boarding school approach. Even though the teachers were members of the tribe, I experienced a disconnect from my culture”4. At times, cultural values deeper than school have been seen to influence teacher actions, such as the types of classroom behaviors that were seen as problematic and the approaches used to address concerning behaviors5.
In considering the experiences and lenses you bring to the world, what values and philosophies are most prominent? Which ones do you sense may be there, but you don’t spend much time thinking about? How may your background influence your approach to the world today?
Sources:
1 Foerster, L. M., & Little Soldier, D. (1974). Open education and Native American values. Educational Leadership, 32(1), 41-45.
2 Foerster, L. M., & Little Soldier, D. (1977). Trends in early childhood education for Native American pupils. Educational Leadership, 34(5), 373-378.
3 Cahill, C. D. (2011). Federal fathers & mothers: A social history of the United States Indian Service, 1869-1933. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
4 Goeson, R. (2014). Finding our voices through narrative inquiry: Exploring a conflict of cultures. Voices of Practitioners, 9(1), 1-22.
5 Light, H. K., & Martin, R. E. (1985). Guidance of American Indian children: Their heritage and some contemporary views. Journal of American Indian Education, 25(1), 42-46.
Children's Development in Context
Growing up, children are impacted by both those immediately near them as well as by the broader societies and events which influence their families and communities. As Greenwood and Jones (2015) note, “In all our considerations of the well being of Indigenous children, we must take into account their experiences both as individuals and as members of collectives; it is not possible to separate the two”1. This concept is touched on by systems theories that stress such things as the importance of interactions, different paths for reaching developmental milestones, and consideration of the role of environment on development2. From infancy, development has been thought to be impacted by the quality of the child’s dyadic relationship with one or more principle caregiver(s) as well as the presence of other adults and systems–in the family, the community, and broader society–that are supportive of the caregiver(s)3. Nuances in how early healthy relationships form may differ across cultures, however4.
American Indian children are traditionally viewed as gifts that ensure the future of their tribal peoples5, 6 and have been shown a lot of care and love as they are taught to respect life7. When American Indian youth have assets such as strong relationships with an adult, a sense of personal power, and a sense of purpose they have been found more likely to thrive8. Conversely, when young children are exposed to chronic stress without safe, stable, and nurturing environments to buffer it than their development is likely to be adversely impacted9. Behavioral challenges can also arise more heavily in children whose families have experienced numerous historical traumas over time10. In considering the importance of developing assets and buffers to chronic stress for Indigenous children, where do you see yourself fitting in? How can you be a supportive factor in helping children to develop in healthy ways that build strong foundations for tribal futures?
Sources:
1 Greenwood, M., & Jones, E. (2015). Being at the interface: Early childhood as a determinant of health. In M. Greenwood, S. de Leeuw, N. M. Lindsay, & C. Reading (Eds.)
2 Futterweit, L. R. & Ruff, H. A. (1993). Principles of development: Implications for early intervention. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 14, 153-173.
3 Bronfenbrenner, U. (2002). Preparing a world for the infant in the twenty-first century: The research challenge. In Gomes-Pedro, J., Nugent, J. K., Young, J. G., & Brazelton, T. B. (Eds.), The infant and family in the twenty-first century (pp. 45-54). New York, NY: Routledge.
4 Neckoway, R., Brownlee, K., & Castellan, B. (2007). Is attachment theory consistent with aboriginal parenting realities? First Peoples Child & Family Review, 3(2), 65-74.
5 EagleWoman, A., & Rice, G. W. (2016). American Indian children and U.S. Indian policy. Tribal Law Journal, 16, 1-29.
6 Light, H. K., & Martin, R. E. (1985). Guidance of American Indian children: Their heritage and some contemporary views. Journal of American Indian Education, 25(1), 42-46.
7, 10 Davis, B., Dionne, R., & Fortin (2014). Parenting in two cultural worlds in the presence of one dominant worldview: The American Indian experience. In Selin, H. (Ed.), Parenting across cultures: Childrearing, motherhood and fatherhood in non-Western cultures (pp. 367-378). New York, NY: Springer.
8 Scales, P. C., Benson, P. L., Leffert, N., & Blyth, D. A. (2000). Contribution of developmental assets to the prediction of thriving among adolescents. Applied Developmental Science, 4(1), 27-46.
9 Shonkoff, J. P., Garner, A. S., & The Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent Care, and
Section on Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics. (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics, 129(1), e232-e246.
American Indian children are traditionally viewed as gifts that ensure the future of their tribal peoples5, 6 and have been shown a lot of care and love as they are taught to respect life7. When American Indian youth have assets such as strong relationships with an adult, a sense of personal power, and a sense of purpose they have been found more likely to thrive8. Conversely, when young children are exposed to chronic stress without safe, stable, and nurturing environments to buffer it than their development is likely to be adversely impacted9. Behavioral challenges can also arise more heavily in children whose families have experienced numerous historical traumas over time10. In considering the importance of developing assets and buffers to chronic stress for Indigenous children, where do you see yourself fitting in? How can you be a supportive factor in helping children to develop in healthy ways that build strong foundations for tribal futures?
Sources:
1 Greenwood, M., & Jones, E. (2015). Being at the interface: Early childhood as a determinant of health. In M. Greenwood, S. de Leeuw, N. M. Lindsay, & C. Reading (Eds.)
2 Futterweit, L. R. & Ruff, H. A. (1993). Principles of development: Implications for early intervention. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 14, 153-173.
3 Bronfenbrenner, U. (2002). Preparing a world for the infant in the twenty-first century: The research challenge. In Gomes-Pedro, J., Nugent, J. K., Young, J. G., & Brazelton, T. B. (Eds.), The infant and family in the twenty-first century (pp. 45-54). New York, NY: Routledge.
4 Neckoway, R., Brownlee, K., & Castellan, B. (2007). Is attachment theory consistent with aboriginal parenting realities? First Peoples Child & Family Review, 3(2), 65-74.
5 EagleWoman, A., & Rice, G. W. (2016). American Indian children and U.S. Indian policy. Tribal Law Journal, 16, 1-29.
6 Light, H. K., & Martin, R. E. (1985). Guidance of American Indian children: Their heritage and some contemporary views. Journal of American Indian Education, 25(1), 42-46.
7, 10 Davis, B., Dionne, R., & Fortin (2014). Parenting in two cultural worlds in the presence of one dominant worldview: The American Indian experience. In Selin, H. (Ed.), Parenting across cultures: Childrearing, motherhood and fatherhood in non-Western cultures (pp. 367-378). New York, NY: Springer.
8 Scales, P. C., Benson, P. L., Leffert, N., & Blyth, D. A. (2000). Contribution of developmental assets to the prediction of thriving among adolescents. Applied Developmental Science, 4(1), 27-46.
9 Shonkoff, J. P., Garner, A. S., & The Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent Care, and
Section on Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics. (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics, 129(1), e232-e246.
Hopes and Stresses
There is a complex interplay between historical and ongoing traumas and disparities that adversely impact too many young Indigenous people and communities more broadly and an undying push for healing and maintaining hope for the future. Here in Minnesota, the areas of disparity for Indigenous people are many, such as lower rates of receiving adequate prenatal care (46% vs. 83% for Whites)1, higher rates of childhood poverty (41% vs. 8% for Whites)2, over-representation in the homeless population3, increased likelihood of having an incarcerated parent (3 to 3.5 times more likely than White children)4, lower high school graduation rates (50.6% vs. 86.3% for Whites)5, and increased mortality rates (2 to 3.3 times higher than for birth through 24-year-old Whites)6, 7. At the same time, there are people working very hard to do such things as replant seeds of Indigenous languages with young children8, 9, 10 and do cultural teachings for older youth and families 11, 12.
Love, compassion, and empathy are strong ties that bind and can help to support individuals and communities through tragedy. What I keep questioning, though, is why our society as a whole continues to accept so many acute, ongoing, and enduring traumatic experiences to continue to persist and test the endurance of even the strongest of bonds. The life and livelihood of some people should not be held of higher value than others. At birth, no healthy infant is inherently endowed with an expiration date that is 10 or 20 or 30 years in the future. So, I ask, what can we, individually and collectively, do in our own lives and in the designs of our programs and larger systems to give every young person equitable chances to grow up whole and healthy well into adulthood?
Sources:
1 Wilder Research. (2011). Statewide school readiness report card. Retrieved from http://www.wilder.org/Wilder-Research/Publications/Studies/School%20Readiness%20Report%20Card/School%20Readiness%20Report%20Card%20-%20All%20Fact%20Sheets.pdf
2 Children’s Defence Fund-Minnesota (2015)
3 Wilder Research. (2014). 2012 Minnesota homeless study: Homeless children and their families. Retrieved from http://www.wilder.org/Wilder-Research/Publications/Studies/Homelessness%20in%20Minnesota%202012%20Study/Homeless%20Children%20and%20Their%20Families.pdf
4 Wilder Research. (2014b). Who has an incarcerated parent in Minnesota? (info graphic). Retrieved from: https://www.wilder.org/Wilder-Research/Research-Areas/Documents/who-has-an-incarcerated-parent-in-Minnesota.pdf
5 Minnesota Department of Education. (2015). Minnesota report card. Retrieved from http://rc.education.state.mn.us/.
6 Minnesota Department of Health. (2015). Infant mortality reduction plan for Minnesota: part one. Retrieved from http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/cfh/program/infantmortality/content/document/pdf/infantmortality.pdf
7 Minnesota Department of Health. (2014). Advancing health equity in Minnesota: report to the legislature. Retrieved from http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/chs/healthequity/ahe_leg_report_020414.pdf
8 Wicoie Nandagikendan http://wicoienandagikendan.org/
9 Bdote Learning Center http://www.bdotelearningcenter.org/
10 Montessori American Indian Childcare Center http://www.americanindianmontessori.net/
11 Prevention Through Cultural Awareness Program http://www.maicnet.org/project/prevention-through-cultural-awareness-program/
12 American Indian Family Center https://www.aifc.net/home.html
Love, compassion, and empathy are strong ties that bind and can help to support individuals and communities through tragedy. What I keep questioning, though, is why our society as a whole continues to accept so many acute, ongoing, and enduring traumatic experiences to continue to persist and test the endurance of even the strongest of bonds. The life and livelihood of some people should not be held of higher value than others. At birth, no healthy infant is inherently endowed with an expiration date that is 10 or 20 or 30 years in the future. So, I ask, what can we, individually and collectively, do in our own lives and in the designs of our programs and larger systems to give every young person equitable chances to grow up whole and healthy well into adulthood?
Sources:
1 Wilder Research. (2011). Statewide school readiness report card. Retrieved from http://www.wilder.org/Wilder-Research/Publications/Studies/School%20Readiness%20Report%20Card/School%20Readiness%20Report%20Card%20-%20All%20Fact%20Sheets.pdf
2 Children’s Defence Fund-Minnesota (2015)
3 Wilder Research. (2014). 2012 Minnesota homeless study: Homeless children and their families. Retrieved from http://www.wilder.org/Wilder-Research/Publications/Studies/Homelessness%20in%20Minnesota%202012%20Study/Homeless%20Children%20and%20Their%20Families.pdf
4 Wilder Research. (2014b). Who has an incarcerated parent in Minnesota? (info graphic). Retrieved from: https://www.wilder.org/Wilder-Research/Research-Areas/Documents/who-has-an-incarcerated-parent-in-Minnesota.pdf
5 Minnesota Department of Education. (2015). Minnesota report card. Retrieved from http://rc.education.state.mn.us/.
6 Minnesota Department of Health. (2015). Infant mortality reduction plan for Minnesota: part one. Retrieved from http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/cfh/program/infantmortality/content/document/pdf/infantmortality.pdf
7 Minnesota Department of Health. (2014). Advancing health equity in Minnesota: report to the legislature. Retrieved from http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/chs/healthequity/ahe_leg_report_020414.pdf
8 Wicoie Nandagikendan http://wicoienandagikendan.org/
9 Bdote Learning Center http://www.bdotelearningcenter.org/
10 Montessori American Indian Childcare Center http://www.americanindianmontessori.net/
11 Prevention Through Cultural Awareness Program http://www.maicnet.org/project/prevention-through-cultural-awareness-program/
12 American Indian Family Center https://www.aifc.net/home.html
What Children May Bring With
When many Indigenous children go to school, they do so with historical and cultural backgrounds that may be different than that of other students. During the 19th and 20th centuries, both the U.S. and Canada operated boarding/residential schools specifically for Indigenous youth. Initially run as government-sponsored mission schools1, 2, the first boarding school operated directly by the Bureau of Indian Affairs was run by an army lieutenant, Richard Henry Pratt3, who is oft-quoted as saying that the boarding school’s job was to ‘kill the Indian, and save the man’4. This type of philosophy was deficit focused, seeking to replace what children brought with them from their families and communities5.
Children as young as five-years-old6 were at times forced7, 8, 9 to attend these schools away from their communities, where their Indigenous culture, language, and ways of being were taken away10, 11. These students frequently experienced physical and sexual abuse and at times even death when they were away at boarding schools12, 13, 14. Such shaming school experiences have been noted to result in cultural misplacement and clashes when students returned home to their own communities15, 16, as well as to have intergenerational academic impact such as learning difficulties, repeating grades, and lower overall success in school for the children of residential school survivors17.
Though not all Indigenous children attended boarding schools, many families were touched by this historical educational trauma and continue to carry the remnants intergenerationally. Think about whether or not this is a piece of history that you already knew about. If you already were aware of these historical events, does the information impact your work with Indigenous children and families in any way(s)? If this is new information, what may remain the same and/or change in your ideas of working with Indigenous children and their families?
Sources:
1, 3, 6, 13 EagleWoman, A., & Rice, G. W. (2016). American Indian children and U.S. Indian policy. Tribal Law Journal, 16, 1-29.
2 Hubbs-Tait, L., Tait, D., Hare, C., & Huey, E. (2005). Involvement of American Indian families in early childhood education. In O. N. Saracho & B. Spodek (Eds.) Contemporary perspectives on families, communities, and schools for young children (pp. 225-246. Greenwich: Information Age Publishing.
4, 10 Davis, B., Dionne, R., & Fortin (2014). Parenting in two cultural worlds in the presence of one dominant worldview: The American Indian experience. In Selin, H. (Ed.), Parenting across cultures: Childrearing, motherhood and fatherhood in non-Western cultures (pp. 367-378). New York, NY: Springer.
5 Deyhle, D., & Comeau, K. G. (2009). Connecting the circle in American Indian education. In J. A. Banks (Ed.) The Routledge international companion to multicultural education (pp. 265-275). New York: Routledge.
7 Sarche, M. C., & Whitesell, N. R. (2012). Child development research in North American Native communities—looking back and moving forward: Introduction. Child Development Perspectives, 6(1), 42-48.
8, 15 Sims, C. P. (2001). Native language planning: A pilot process in the Acoma Pueblo community. In Hinton, L., & Hale, K. (Eds.) The green book of language revitalization in practice (pp. 63-73). San Diego: Academic Press.
9 Tyler, S. L. (1973). A history of Indian policy (Stock No. 2402-00031). Washington, DC: United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED092279
11, 12 Piccard, A. (2013). Death by boarding school: “the last acceptable racism” and the United States’ genocide of Native Americans. Gonzaga Law Review, 49, 137-185.
14, 16 Adams, D. W. (1995). Education for extinction. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.
17 Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2014). The intergenerational effects of Indian residential schools: Implications for the concept of historical trauma. Transcultural Psychiatry, 51(3), 320-338. doi:10.1177/1363461513503380
Children as young as five-years-old6 were at times forced7, 8, 9 to attend these schools away from their communities, where their Indigenous culture, language, and ways of being were taken away10, 11. These students frequently experienced physical and sexual abuse and at times even death when they were away at boarding schools12, 13, 14. Such shaming school experiences have been noted to result in cultural misplacement and clashes when students returned home to their own communities15, 16, as well as to have intergenerational academic impact such as learning difficulties, repeating grades, and lower overall success in school for the children of residential school survivors17.
Though not all Indigenous children attended boarding schools, many families were touched by this historical educational trauma and continue to carry the remnants intergenerationally. Think about whether or not this is a piece of history that you already knew about. If you already were aware of these historical events, does the information impact your work with Indigenous children and families in any way(s)? If this is new information, what may remain the same and/or change in your ideas of working with Indigenous children and their families?
Sources:
1, 3, 6, 13 EagleWoman, A., & Rice, G. W. (2016). American Indian children and U.S. Indian policy. Tribal Law Journal, 16, 1-29.
2 Hubbs-Tait, L., Tait, D., Hare, C., & Huey, E. (2005). Involvement of American Indian families in early childhood education. In O. N. Saracho & B. Spodek (Eds.) Contemporary perspectives on families, communities, and schools for young children (pp. 225-246. Greenwich: Information Age Publishing.
4, 10 Davis, B., Dionne, R., & Fortin (2014). Parenting in two cultural worlds in the presence of one dominant worldview: The American Indian experience. In Selin, H. (Ed.), Parenting across cultures: Childrearing, motherhood and fatherhood in non-Western cultures (pp. 367-378). New York, NY: Springer.
5 Deyhle, D., & Comeau, K. G. (2009). Connecting the circle in American Indian education. In J. A. Banks (Ed.) The Routledge international companion to multicultural education (pp. 265-275). New York: Routledge.
7 Sarche, M. C., & Whitesell, N. R. (2012). Child development research in North American Native communities—looking back and moving forward: Introduction. Child Development Perspectives, 6(1), 42-48.
8, 15 Sims, C. P. (2001). Native language planning: A pilot process in the Acoma Pueblo community. In Hinton, L., & Hale, K. (Eds.) The green book of language revitalization in practice (pp. 63-73). San Diego: Academic Press.
9 Tyler, S. L. (1973). A history of Indian policy (Stock No. 2402-00031). Washington, DC: United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED092279
11, 12 Piccard, A. (2013). Death by boarding school: “the last acceptable racism” and the United States’ genocide of Native Americans. Gonzaga Law Review, 49, 137-185.
14, 16 Adams, D. W. (1995). Education for extinction. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.
17 Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2014). The intergenerational effects of Indian residential schools: Implications for the concept of historical trauma. Transcultural Psychiatry, 51(3), 320-338. doi:10.1177/1363461513503380
Past and Present
Historically traumatic experiences such as massacres, forced removal to reservations, attendance at oppressive boarding/residential schools, and other colonial events have had lasting intergenerational impacts on many Indigenous populations and are thought to contribute to many of today’s areas of disparity. Historical trauma has been defined as the “cumulative emotional and psychological wounding, over the lifespan and across generations, emanating from massive group trauma experiences”1. Multiple conceptual models have sought to explain how historically traumatic experiences are passed between generations2, 3. Regardless of the exact mechanism(s) of trauma transmission, scholars have indicated that it is important to understand that historical events continue to impact Indigenous children and families4, 5, and–particularly for those whose elders attended boarding schools–the impact of long-term separation from families is thought to negatively impact parenting practices6, 7.
While decades have passed since the worst boarding school days, many schools today continue to create culture clashes for their Indigenous students. What Indigenous families may do to prepare their children for learning in traditional ways may not be valued by professional educators and policy makers8. This is problematic, as Romero-Little (2010) noted, because “instructional practices work best when they are a logical extension of the socialization practices and beliefs of a people–or at least, they are not in conflict with them…”9. To make such logical connections, it is important for school staff to get to know the families and communities that Indigenous students come from so that they may gain a greater understanding of their traditional culture, language, and ways of learning10. When such connections are not genuinely fostered, ongoing strife can emerge with court orders mandating programming that district staff are not heavily invested in seeing succeed11.
In my own professional experiences, it has often been much easier to address learners where they are at in smaller and more culturally-specific educational settings. What have your experiences been like in schools? Have you experienced them as overall supportive of learning, as sites of painful cultural clashes, or as a combination of these extremes depending on the individuals and systems involved? Why do you perceive them in this way?
Sources:
1, 6 Brave Heart, M. Y. H. (2007). The impact of historical trauma: The example of the Native community. In Bussey, M., & Wise, J. B. (Eds.), Trauma transformed: An empowerment response (pp. 176-193). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
2 Sotero, M. (2006). A conceptual model of historical trauma: Implications for public health practice and research. Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice, 1(1), 93-108.
3 Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2009). Intergenerational trauma: Convergence of multiple processes among First Nations peoples in Canada. Journal of Aboriginal Health, 5(3), 6-47.
4 Sarche, M. C., & Whitesell, N. R. (2012). Child development research in North American Native communities—looking back and moving forward: Introduction. Child Development Perspectives, 6(1), 42-48.
5 Ball, J. (2012b). Federal investments in strengthening Indigenous capacity for culturally based early childhood education and care. In N. Howe and L. Prochner (Eds.) Recent perspectives on early childhood education and care in Canada (pp. 337-366). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
7 Brave Heart, M. Y. H. (1999). Oyate ptayela: Rebuilding the Lakota nation through addressing historical trauma among Lakota parents. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 2(1/2), 109-126.
8, 9 Romero-Little, M. E. (2010). How should young indigenous children be prepared for learning? A vision of early childhood education for indigenous children. Journal of American Indian Education, 49(1/2), 7-27.
10 Romero-Little, M. E. (2011). Learning the community’s curriculum: The linguistic, social, and cultural resources of American Indian and Alaska Native children. In American Indian and Alaska Native children and mental health: Development, context, prevention, and treatment (pp. 89-99). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
11 Shields, C. M. Minoritizing as a way of pathologizing: An example drawn from Navajo education. (2005). In C. M. Shields, R. Bishop, & A. E. Mazawi, Pathologizing practices: The impact of deficit thinking on education (pp. 23-53). New York: Peter Lang Publishing Inc.
While decades have passed since the worst boarding school days, many schools today continue to create culture clashes for their Indigenous students. What Indigenous families may do to prepare their children for learning in traditional ways may not be valued by professional educators and policy makers8. This is problematic, as Romero-Little (2010) noted, because “instructional practices work best when they are a logical extension of the socialization practices and beliefs of a people–or at least, they are not in conflict with them…”9. To make such logical connections, it is important for school staff to get to know the families and communities that Indigenous students come from so that they may gain a greater understanding of their traditional culture, language, and ways of learning10. When such connections are not genuinely fostered, ongoing strife can emerge with court orders mandating programming that district staff are not heavily invested in seeing succeed11.
In my own professional experiences, it has often been much easier to address learners where they are at in smaller and more culturally-specific educational settings. What have your experiences been like in schools? Have you experienced them as overall supportive of learning, as sites of painful cultural clashes, or as a combination of these extremes depending on the individuals and systems involved? Why do you perceive them in this way?
Sources:
1, 6 Brave Heart, M. Y. H. (2007). The impact of historical trauma: The example of the Native community. In Bussey, M., & Wise, J. B. (Eds.), Trauma transformed: An empowerment response (pp. 176-193). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
2 Sotero, M. (2006). A conceptual model of historical trauma: Implications for public health practice and research. Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice, 1(1), 93-108.
3 Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2009). Intergenerational trauma: Convergence of multiple processes among First Nations peoples in Canada. Journal of Aboriginal Health, 5(3), 6-47.
4 Sarche, M. C., & Whitesell, N. R. (2012). Child development research in North American Native communities—looking back and moving forward: Introduction. Child Development Perspectives, 6(1), 42-48.
5 Ball, J. (2012b). Federal investments in strengthening Indigenous capacity for culturally based early childhood education and care. In N. Howe and L. Prochner (Eds.) Recent perspectives on early childhood education and care in Canada (pp. 337-366). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
7 Brave Heart, M. Y. H. (1999). Oyate ptayela: Rebuilding the Lakota nation through addressing historical trauma among Lakota parents. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 2(1/2), 109-126.
8, 9 Romero-Little, M. E. (2010). How should young indigenous children be prepared for learning? A vision of early childhood education for indigenous children. Journal of American Indian Education, 49(1/2), 7-27.
10 Romero-Little, M. E. (2011). Learning the community’s curriculum: The linguistic, social, and cultural resources of American Indian and Alaska Native children. In American Indian and Alaska Native children and mental health: Development, context, prevention, and treatment (pp. 89-99). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
11 Shields, C. M. Minoritizing as a way of pathologizing: An example drawn from Navajo education. (2005). In C. M. Shields, R. Bishop, & A. E. Mazawi, Pathologizing practices: The impact of deficit thinking on education (pp. 23-53). New York: Peter Lang Publishing Inc.
Seeds of Possibilities
When considering ways to improve Indigenous children’s educational experiences and life outcomes, there are likely to be seeds of possibility already present in the surrounding communities. In an academic context, the concept of positive deviance speaks to this idea that even in challenging contexts there are likely to be some who have found ways to thrive1. In seeking to create culturally acceptable, sustainable, and affordable solutions to challenges it is therefore important to identify practices that allow some to thrive despite the contexts around them2. Positive deviance is considered an asset-based approach advocated for in both public health3, 4 and school settings5. Because of its contextualized nature, a positive deviance approach may also alleviate concerns associated with the quality movement in early childhood education–namely, the underlying assumption of objective universiality inherent in quality standards6, 7. Such objectivity contrasts with Indigenous values, as noted by Rowan (2016): “For Indigenous peoples, the purpose of knowledge is not to reveal, identify, or single out ‘the truth’; rather, it relates to obligations among people and places”8.
In keeping with this value of context-specifics between people and places, there is not one “right” answer that I can point people to at this juncture. What can be provided are glimpses of program elements documented in the literature base. Observation/demonstration and storytelling have been pointed to as traditional Indigenous teaching methods9, 10. Values that have been seen as crossing tribal cultures include harmony with nature, bravery, generosity and sharing, a conception of ‘Indian time’, and self-determination11. Building educational programs that are holistic in nature12 and built on traditional knowledge, culture, and language are important for supporting young learners’ identity development, academic achievement, and wellbeing of community13. Last, but certainly not least, parent and community ownership has been an important driver for development of Indigenous language immersion programs14 and culturally-specific magnet schools15. Moving forward, these seeds of possibility could be a part of much larger and more involved discussions in specific communities. What are some ways you may go about beginning discussions of successful practices and ways to move forward with programs in communities you are a part of?
Sources:
1, 3 Lapping, K., Marsh, D. R., Rosenbaum, J., Swedberg, E., Sternin, J., Sternin, M., & Schroeder, D. G. (2002). The positive deviance approach: Challenges and opportunities for the future. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 23(4S), 128-135.
2, 4 Marsh, D. R., Schroeder, D. G., Dearden, K. A., Sternin, J., & Sternin, M. (2004). The power of positive deviance. British Medical Journal, 329(13), 1177-1179.
5 Cherkowski, S., & Walker, K. (2014). Flourishing communities: Re-storying educational leadership using a positive research lens. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 17(2), 200-2016. doi:10.1080/13603124.2013.827240
6 Dahlberg, G., Moss, P., & Pence, A. (1999). Beyond quality in early childhood education and care: Postmodern perspectives. Philadelphia: Falmer Press.
7 Moss, P., Dahlberg, G., & Pence, A. (2000). Getting beyond the problem with quality. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 8(2), 103-115.
8 Rowan, M. C. (2016). Qualities of Inuit early childhood programs in the era of the anthropocene. In G. S. Cannella, M. S. Perez, & I. F. Lee (Eds.) Cultural examinations of quality in early education and care (pp. 157-177). New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.
9 Friesen, J. W., & Friesen, V. L. (2002). Aboriginal education in Canada: A plea for integration. Calgary: Detselig Enterprises Ltd.
10, 13 Preston, J. P., Cottrell, M., Pelletier, T. R., & Pearce, J. V. (2011). Aboriginal early childhood education in Canada: Issues of context. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 10(1), 3-18. doi:10.1177/1476718X11402753
11 Foerster, L. M., & Little Soldier, D. (1975). What’s new and good in Indian education today. Educational Leadership, 33(3), 192-198.
12 Corbiere, A. I. (2000). Reconciling epistemological orientations: Toward a wholistic Nishaabe (Ojibwe/Odawa/Potowatomi) education. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 24(2), 113-119.
14 Johnston, B., & Johnson, K. A. (2002). Preschool immersion education for indigenous languages: A survey of resources. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 26(2), 107-201.
15 Pewewardy, C. (1998). Our children can’t wait: Recapturing the essence of Indigenous schools in the United Stated. Cultural Survival Quarterly, 22(1), 29-34.
In keeping with this value of context-specifics between people and places, there is not one “right” answer that I can point people to at this juncture. What can be provided are glimpses of program elements documented in the literature base. Observation/demonstration and storytelling have been pointed to as traditional Indigenous teaching methods9, 10. Values that have been seen as crossing tribal cultures include harmony with nature, bravery, generosity and sharing, a conception of ‘Indian time’, and self-determination11. Building educational programs that are holistic in nature12 and built on traditional knowledge, culture, and language are important for supporting young learners’ identity development, academic achievement, and wellbeing of community13. Last, but certainly not least, parent and community ownership has been an important driver for development of Indigenous language immersion programs14 and culturally-specific magnet schools15. Moving forward, these seeds of possibility could be a part of much larger and more involved discussions in specific communities. What are some ways you may go about beginning discussions of successful practices and ways to move forward with programs in communities you are a part of?
Sources:
1, 3 Lapping, K., Marsh, D. R., Rosenbaum, J., Swedberg, E., Sternin, J., Sternin, M., & Schroeder, D. G. (2002). The positive deviance approach: Challenges and opportunities for the future. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 23(4S), 128-135.
2, 4 Marsh, D. R., Schroeder, D. G., Dearden, K. A., Sternin, J., & Sternin, M. (2004). The power of positive deviance. British Medical Journal, 329(13), 1177-1179.
5 Cherkowski, S., & Walker, K. (2014). Flourishing communities: Re-storying educational leadership using a positive research lens. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 17(2), 200-2016. doi:10.1080/13603124.2013.827240
6 Dahlberg, G., Moss, P., & Pence, A. (1999). Beyond quality in early childhood education and care: Postmodern perspectives. Philadelphia: Falmer Press.
7 Moss, P., Dahlberg, G., & Pence, A. (2000). Getting beyond the problem with quality. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 8(2), 103-115.
8 Rowan, M. C. (2016). Qualities of Inuit early childhood programs in the era of the anthropocene. In G. S. Cannella, M. S. Perez, & I. F. Lee (Eds.) Cultural examinations of quality in early education and care (pp. 157-177). New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.
9 Friesen, J. W., & Friesen, V. L. (2002). Aboriginal education in Canada: A plea for integration. Calgary: Detselig Enterprises Ltd.
10, 13 Preston, J. P., Cottrell, M., Pelletier, T. R., & Pearce, J. V. (2011). Aboriginal early childhood education in Canada: Issues of context. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 10(1), 3-18. doi:10.1177/1476718X11402753
11 Foerster, L. M., & Little Soldier, D. (1975). What’s new and good in Indian education today. Educational Leadership, 33(3), 192-198.
12 Corbiere, A. I. (2000). Reconciling epistemological orientations: Toward a wholistic Nishaabe (Ojibwe/Odawa/Potowatomi) education. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 24(2), 113-119.
14 Johnston, B., & Johnson, K. A. (2002). Preschool immersion education for indigenous languages: A survey of resources. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 26(2), 107-201.
15 Pewewardy, C. (1998). Our children can’t wait: Recapturing the essence of Indigenous schools in the United Stated. Cultural Survival Quarterly, 22(1), 29-34.
Where To Go From Here
In moving into the future, there are multiple paths that could likely be taken to reach the goal of healthy children, families, and communities–to stem a tide of seemingly needless struggles and premature deaths. In designing programs it is important to start in the very places in which they hope to be implemented. As Ball (2009) noted: “Community-fitting approaches to supporting early childhood development are likely to be more effective than top-down, expert-driven strategies or models purported to be ‘best practices’ and imported from other contexts. Involving community members in forging useful pathways to achieving locally defined goals is part of the foundational work that leads to sustainable community-driven programs”1. Simply put, past policies related to Indigenous education (among other areas) have often created problems–ones that continue to reverberate and manifest in disparities in Indigenous populations across the U.S.2 and Canada3, 4. Current contexts, too, are thought to contribute to continuation of historical patterns of disenfranchisement and disparity among Indigenous populations.
In thinking of productive approaches, there are many contexts and possibilities to consider. Some scholars remind of the importance of recognizing the incredible value that Indigenous values, cultures, languages, and practices have for preparing young people for learning and ask that educators understand these as differences and not deficits when it comes to Indigenous children5, 6. Others focus on the need for healing from historical trauma and promote parenting education interventions that re-teach cultural values and practices that have been lost over time due to cultural trauma, replacing maladaptive behaviors with ones that support better parental and family health7, 8, 9, 10. With the diversity of individual, familial, and tribal experiences over time, those represented by both types of strengths and needs may very well be intermixed within any given community–creating a context requiring both/and approaches designed with local populations. In considering your own role in society, how will you work with others to help create policies and processes that are equitable for all people, including those who are Indigenous?
Sources:
1 Ball, J. (2009). Centring community services around early childhood care and development: Promising practices in Indigenous communities in Canada. Child Health and Education, 1(4), 183-206.
2 Sarche, M., & Spicer, P. (2008). Poverty and health disparities for American Indian and Alaska Native children: Current knowledge and future prospects. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1136, 126-136.
3 Ball, J. (2012). Federal investments in strengthening Indigenous capacity for culturally based early childhood education and care. In N. Howe and L. Prochner (Eds.) Recent perspectives on early childhood education and care in Canada (pp. 337-366). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
4 Greenwood, M., Leeuw, S. D., & Fraser, T. N. (2007). Aboriginal children and early childhood development and education in Canada: Linking the past and the present to the future. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 30(1), 5-18.
5 Romero-Little, M. E. (2010). How should young indigenous children be prepared for learning? A vision of early childhood education for indigenous children. Journal of American Indian Education, 49(1/2), 7-27.
6 Hubbs-Tait, L., Tait, D., Hare, C., & Huey, E. (2005). Involvement of American Indian families in early childhood education. In O. N. Saracho & B. Spodek (Eds.) Contemporary perspectives on families, communities, and schools for young children (pp. 225-246. Greenwich: Information Age Publishing.
7 Brave Heart, M. Y. H. (1999). Oyate ptayela: Rebuilding the Lakota nation through addressing historical trauma among Lakota parents. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 2(1/2), 109-126.
8 Dionne, R., Davis, B., Sheeber, L., & Madrigal, L. (2009). Initial evaluation of a cultural approach to implementation of evidence-based parenting interventions in American Indian communities. Journal of Community Psychology, 37(7), 911-921.
9 Barlow, A., Mullany, B., Neault, N., Goklish, N., Billy, T., Hastings, R., Lorenzo, S., Kee, C., Lake, K., Redmond, C., Carter, A., & Walkup, J. T. (2015). Paraprofessional-delivered home-visiting intervention for American Indian teen mothers and children: 3-year outcomes from a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 172(2), 154-162.
10 Barlow, A., Mullany, B., Neault, N., Compton, S., Carter, A., Hastings, R., Billy, T., Coho-Mescal, V., Lorenzo, S., & Walkup, J. T. (2013). Effect of a paraprofessional home-visiting intervention on American Indian teen mothers’ and infants’ behavioral risks: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170(1), 83-93.
In thinking of productive approaches, there are many contexts and possibilities to consider. Some scholars remind of the importance of recognizing the incredible value that Indigenous values, cultures, languages, and practices have for preparing young people for learning and ask that educators understand these as differences and not deficits when it comes to Indigenous children5, 6. Others focus on the need for healing from historical trauma and promote parenting education interventions that re-teach cultural values and practices that have been lost over time due to cultural trauma, replacing maladaptive behaviors with ones that support better parental and family health7, 8, 9, 10. With the diversity of individual, familial, and tribal experiences over time, those represented by both types of strengths and needs may very well be intermixed within any given community–creating a context requiring both/and approaches designed with local populations. In considering your own role in society, how will you work with others to help create policies and processes that are equitable for all people, including those who are Indigenous?
Sources:
1 Ball, J. (2009). Centring community services around early childhood care and development: Promising practices in Indigenous communities in Canada. Child Health and Education, 1(4), 183-206.
2 Sarche, M., & Spicer, P. (2008). Poverty and health disparities for American Indian and Alaska Native children: Current knowledge and future prospects. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1136, 126-136.
3 Ball, J. (2012). Federal investments in strengthening Indigenous capacity for culturally based early childhood education and care. In N. Howe and L. Prochner (Eds.) Recent perspectives on early childhood education and care in Canada (pp. 337-366). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
4 Greenwood, M., Leeuw, S. D., & Fraser, T. N. (2007). Aboriginal children and early childhood development and education in Canada: Linking the past and the present to the future. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 30(1), 5-18.
5 Romero-Little, M. E. (2010). How should young indigenous children be prepared for learning? A vision of early childhood education for indigenous children. Journal of American Indian Education, 49(1/2), 7-27.
6 Hubbs-Tait, L., Tait, D., Hare, C., & Huey, E. (2005). Involvement of American Indian families in early childhood education. In O. N. Saracho & B. Spodek (Eds.) Contemporary perspectives on families, communities, and schools for young children (pp. 225-246. Greenwich: Information Age Publishing.
7 Brave Heart, M. Y. H. (1999). Oyate ptayela: Rebuilding the Lakota nation through addressing historical trauma among Lakota parents. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 2(1/2), 109-126.
8 Dionne, R., Davis, B., Sheeber, L., & Madrigal, L. (2009). Initial evaluation of a cultural approach to implementation of evidence-based parenting interventions in American Indian communities. Journal of Community Psychology, 37(7), 911-921.
9 Barlow, A., Mullany, B., Neault, N., Goklish, N., Billy, T., Hastings, R., Lorenzo, S., Kee, C., Lake, K., Redmond, C., Carter, A., & Walkup, J. T. (2015). Paraprofessional-delivered home-visiting intervention for American Indian teen mothers and children: 3-year outcomes from a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 172(2), 154-162.
10 Barlow, A., Mullany, B., Neault, N., Compton, S., Carter, A., Hastings, R., Billy, T., Coho-Mescal, V., Lorenzo, S., & Walkup, J. T. (2013). Effect of a paraprofessional home-visiting intervention on American Indian teen mothers’ and infants’ behavioral risks: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170(1), 83-93.